Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Research Paper Example Bauerlein claims, â€Å"The digital age stupefies young Americans while at the same time jeopardizing their future† because of the technological advancements they have adopted (Bauerlein 3). In his book, Bauerlein argues that what the teachers are offering and the available information on internet not sufficient. This makes him refer to it as the dumbest generation, with allegation that their overdependence on media technology has them less intellect compared to generations before them. Bauerlein’s argument, however, is not true because what the teachers are offering and the available information on internet is sufficient for the generation under 30 years. In his book, Bauerlein accuses the teenagers for their lack of knowledge and intelligence, poor scholastic-effort and lack of ability to be attentive unless stimulated constantly. The author presents arguments, which are rich in disappointment, emotion, and despair to express the negativities associated with technological advancements towards the young generation. Bauerlein clearly presents his arguments to prove his point that this generation has been affected to an extent that it cannot understand that it is dumb. He tries to convince the adults that the young generation should agree that they are the dumbest generation. Basing argument from Bauerlein’s school of thought, it is clear that he does not acknowledge the intelligence and knowledge that the generation under 30 is obtaining from use of technology. Bauerlein has not focused his attention on the behaviors, attitudes, and moralities of the young Americans and the things they have engaged themselves into. He also does not focus on the contributions of technology to the lives of the young generation. This is a clear indication that Bauerlein lacks sufficient evidence to support his claim that the information on the internet is making the dumbest generation less

Service Oriented Architectures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Service Oriented Architectures - Essay Example As the research highlights  the increased competition among international manufacturers forces them to reduce their manufacturing costs. These industries are usually stemmed from advanced and high incomes countries of the world. The wage rates in these countries are really high because of high living standards. The labor cost is one of the major costs of manufacturing. Although in a simple operations analysis it would not seem very high. The major cost seems to be of raw materials and parts being used in the manufacturing process. One must understand that these parts are also being manufactured and thus their costs rise as well because of high wage rates. The manufacturing industries have no other reliable method of reducing their manufacturing cost other than outsourcing to countries with lower wage rates.This paper discusses that  the connection of customers to services is a major point of concern for many organizations. This is because a user interface is required which can co nnect consumers with available web based services. Service oriented architecture provides this capability to organizations by connecting consumers of applications to available solutions and services. XML can be used by the consumers to connect with services based on Service oriented architecture. SOA also has the capability of using multiple implementation platforms.  This integrates different applications in the web-environment. Moreover the simplification of different functions in terms of services helps systems developers.

The Role Of Health Ngos Health And Social Care Essay

The Role Of Health Ngos Health And Social Care Essay Health care in Nigeria is structured along, and administered through the universal three tiers: the primary level run by the local government, the secondary by the state and the tertiary by the federal government (FMOH 2005). The contribution of Nigerias health sector to the national economy remains poorly defined, and as a result Nigeria was ranked a dismal 187th position among the 191 United Nation member state (WHO 2000).Health care facilities are inadequate in Nigeria (Yohesor 2009) and this includes health centres, personnel and medical equipment. Moreso, the state of existing facilities is often deplorable due to lack of maintenance. As Lee states: A health care system is an organizational framework for the distribution or servicing of the health care needs of a given community. It is a fairly complex system of inter-related elements that contribute to the health of people-in their homes, educational institutions, in work places, the public (social or recreational) and the psychological environments as well as the directly health and health-related sectors. (Lee 2009: 1). However, with the many social and infrastructural problems confronting the country is the pursuit of the politically attractive tertiary health care which, arguably, has remained the only attractive area of the health system, to the detriment of other levels of care. The neglect of Nigerias health care, with special reference to the primary health care system, its maldistribution, will result in an inverted health care pyramid. By implication, rather than produce health for the people, would always have the threat to collapse on itself. According to Asuzu (2003), Nigerias health care system has experienced past reforms, ranging from the traditional health care system that existed in the individual Nigerian communities and the ethnic groups before the era of colonization till date. Though Nigerias health care system is geared towards ensuring availability and accessibility of health care by Nigerians, yet the nations health care remains a major concern. On the other hand, health care reform is the process of improving the performance of existing systems of assuming efficient and equitable responses to future changes. It has also been defined as sustainable, purposeful change aimed at improving the health sector; health care reform is initiated by public or political action, is motivated by dissatisfaction caused by the failure to deliver outcomes and implemented on a sector wide level (Berman 1995). This presupposes that reforms might address the problems of poor quality of care, inefficiencies in the delivery of services, inequalities and limited access to health, level of accountability and insufficient responsiveness to client needs. Globally, it would seem Non-governmental Organizations have undertaken a wide range of functions, including but not limited to, humanitarian assistance, developmental aid, and promotion of human rights and lobbying to protect the environment. In other words, the role of non-governmental (NGOs) might have been seen to expand. Capturing the essence of health NGOs, Gilson states: †¦..humanitarian assistance is assistance given to meet the challenges of a humanitarian crisis, almost always includes provision of some type of healthcare, be it preventive action (such as providing shelter, clean water and sanitary facilities, immunization against epidemics) or management of emergencies (such as injuries from a disaster). Arguably, Nigeria is currently undergoing health sector reform aimed at achieving improved efficiencies in resource utilization, improved quality of health services as well as greater equity of access to health services. Jong-Chan (2002) asserts that given the strong influence they possess, NGOs remain the only sector that can empower the public to demand a stable national health program; NGOs should bring their experiences in health care reform to bear in order to strengthen their unique position in the health care system, independent of both governmental dominance and medical autonomy. In the light of the above assertion, it would seem Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have always been in the forefront of advancing novel ideas, and in encouraging and supporting governments to implement them. At a simple level, NGOs generally represent the voice of the people at all levels- local, national and international, and have taken on roles such as advocacy, education and training (Ogunbekun, 2004:3), and have been active in monitoring and improving what has, or has not, been implemented or achieved. For example, NGOs have been in the front burner in promoting, developing and improving a comprehensive and holistic approach to health care services. For change to happen, it would be necessary to collaborate with the relevant stakeholders in the health sector, whether they work in government, in administration, or as providers of the necessary services, to bring about needed change and improvement; also to ensure the people understand and support the changes which need to be made (Lorgen, 1998). Moreso, health professional associations might be effective in working with health NGOs in improving health care delivery. Often, they seek the advice of health professionals regarding issues around health care, essentially because they know that medical ethics require physicians to provide objective advice on health issues, in the best interests of their patients (Pfeiffer 2003). Health NGOs, together with health professionals, might also employ the skills and experiences that NGOs have garnered in putting information and messages across to the public in such a way that the public is able to understand and this will be necessary in improving health care. The role or value of NGOs in advancing health is hinged on three premises, emerging from the research endeavour of George Washington Universitys Centre for international Health: Individual health and communities socio-economic development are intrinsically linked; Well targeted health promotion activities can contribute not only to better health but can also enhance an individuals social well-being ; Local NGOs whose members are responsive to the communities they serve, are more likely to provide this linkage through fostering community empowerment. Many NGOs are involved in training programmes which is a role they seem to have undertaken at all levels. Therefore, they are well-positioned to assist the relevant government departments in bringing about changes and improvement in health care system (Gilson 2003). It would follow that NGOs should be invited by governments to assist as partners in creation of awareness, mobilization and development of training programmes on health care reforms. Also, health NGOs seem to have the capacity to empower communities to act on their own behalf, equipping people to improve the social and physical environments conducive for healthy lifestyles, and of health advocacy to enable policy makers to recognize and appreciate the necessity for improvements in health care conditions (Starfield 2011). Following the policy statement of World Health Organizations 1978 Alma Ata Conference, also known as the Alma Ata Declaration, which proposed that primary health care (PHC) be adopted for health planning and delivery, emphasizing on equity in health, disease prevention, and a comprehensive strategy to promote individual and community health (Rodriguez 2001), a health education strategy might suggest that within a socio-political context, health education aims to increase individuals consciousness of his or her health status, and the causes and determinants of that status, thereby increasing the possibility for positive action. As Asuzu (2003) points out †¦ NGOS act as catalyst by encouraging the various departments concerned with health to become actively involved in reform exercises†¦ This would be effective if different NGOs work in synergy. For instance, in addition to health NGOs, there is involvement of other relevant NGOs such as womens NGOs that concentrate on activities to improve the status of women and development NGOs whose centre of interest or activity is particularly on issues around development. Health NGOs, arguably, are dependent on their mandate or project charter which is in tandem with the overall programmes of a health care system within which they operate. According to Ohanyido (2012), the roles of health NGOs are summarized below: †¢ work to ensure that the health services are efficient, effective, and accessible. †¢ work within the health system to ensure that the number of well-trained staff is available through capacity- building or advocacy to government etc. †¢ help ensure that the health information system is able to generate useful data on health determinants and health system performance, and also avoid creating parallel systems †¢ work with all stakeholders to ensure that there is access to medicines, vaccines, and medical technologies in an equitable fashion. †¢ strengthen health financing systems by exploring funding sources and advocating to stakeholders to raise adequate funds for health, and ensuring that people can access affordable services. †¢ strengthen the system by ensuring that the Leadership must guarantee effective oversight, regulation, and accountability. Nonetheless, in order to work efficiently and effectively in improving health care system, health NGOs themselves must also be found to be accountable, transparent, and seem to be representing the interests of the people.

Comparative Character Analysis of Classical Vs. Modern Tragic Protagoni

Comparative Character Analysis of Classical Vs. Modern Tragic Protagonists. A hero/ heroine is described as the principal male/ female character in a literary or dramatic work or the central figure in an event, period, or movement. The classic tragic hero was defined by Aristotle in the fourth century as, â€Å"someone who is highly renowned and prosperous† (LATWP, 639), suggesting that there is a â€Å"natural right ordering and proportion of traits within the human being that if violated, produces calamity† (LATWP, 639). The book goes on to define classical tragedy as one that â€Å"involves the inevitable destruction of a noble person by means of character flaw, usually a disproportionate measure of a specific human attribute such as pride, jealousy or indecision† (LATWP, 639). On the other hand, another type of tragic hero exists, the modern tragic hero. This type of hero is a product of a clash between the individual and the social environment. Arthur Miller, the famous playwright said, â€Å"each person has a chosen image of self and position, tragedy results when the characters environment denies the fulfillment of this self concept.† (LATWP, 640). This is a contrast from Aristotle’s classic tragic hero because the hero is no longer born into nobility but gains stature in the action of pitting self against cosmos, and the tragedy becomes, â€Å"the disaster inherent in being torn away from our chosen image of what and who we are in this world.† (LATWP, 640). In the tragic play named after it...

Discipline and Corporal Punishment

Corporal punishment by definition is the deliberate infliction of physical pain as a system of changing behaviour. Corporal punishment may consist of methods such as shaking, pinching, kicking, punching, slapping, hitting, painful body posture, or use of different objects such as sticks, belts and paddles (National Association of School Nurses, 2002, p. 1). In the past, corporal punishment was a technique of disciplining youth and children in the school setting.At present, several States in America have enacted legislation banning corporal punishment in schools. On the other hand corporal punishment has been an accepted mode of reprimand that several parents choose to integrate into their lives without giving a careful consideration. The mode of punishment can commence at any time but is generally initiated within the start of the child’s grade school (Mathews, 2006, p. 1). The physical inflictions can be tolerated all the way until the teenager grows old enough to leave or be independent.This type of correction is purely torture, which has been employed for centuries and is still a frightening and disturbing incidence in several families today. Dr. Murray Straus of the University of New Hampshire Family Research Laboratory revealed that corporal punishment: when regularly imposed to children it increases their antisocial behaviour such as bullying, cheating, stealing, lying, assaulting peers or sibling, and lack of repentance for erroneous doings (The Center for Effective Discipline, n.d. ); provides as a model for violent behaviour and for improper ways of dealing with disagreement among the punished children; erodes trust between a child and parent; and badly influences cognitive development of the child. Corporal punishment is not desirable for the reason that it increases the risk of child abuse and adults who were frequently hit during their childhood are likely to experience depression and other unconstructive mental health and social effects.This form of punishment can have a negative effect on the affected children as it relates to their physical and mental growth and health, as they are at a period of fragile mental capacity. Finally, corporal punishment is not desirable because children are entitled to security, care and good rearing from their parents and teachers. Adults should understand the significance of recognizing corrective discipline instead of outright imposition of corporal punishment in disciplining children.Because children’s ability to control their own behaviour is limited, corrective discipline is an important characteristic of adequate parenting for the reason that it generates the best preventive steps, which is reducing the occurrence of misconduct, and not eliminating it (Straus, Fauchier, 2007, p. 5). Corrective discipline incorporates positive in addition to disciplinary behaviours, and combinations of the two. Conclusion Corporal punishment has a strong possibility to influence the childâ⠂¬â„¢s self-image and contribute to violent and disruptive behaviours.However, the practice remains a commonly used method of discipline in most American families and is still legal in educational institutions in several States in America. The progress of social skills after the infliction of corporal punishment may be severely changed, leading to belligerent behaviours. The imposition of corporal punishment also advances the message that cruelty is an acceptable form of behaviour in the society. Clearly, corporal punishment is not desirable and effective in enforcing discipline among children.

Chemistry practice skills Essay

What type of forces must be overcome when solid I2 dissolves in methanol, CH3OH? Induced dipole What type of forces must be disrupted between CH3OH molecules when I2 dissolves? Hydrogen bonding What type of forces exist between I2 and CH3OH molecules in solution? Dipole-Induced Dipole 4) What type of intermolecular forces must be overcome in converting each of the following from a liquid to a gas? a) CO2 London forces, dipole-dipole b) NH3 London forces, dipole-dipole, hydrogen c) CHCl3 London forces, dipole-dipole d) CCl4 London forces 6) Rank the following in order of increasing strength of intermolecular forces in the pure substances. Which substance exists as a gas at 25 Â ®C and 1 atm? He < CH3OH < CH3CH2CH2CH3 He (helium) and CH3CH2CH2CH3 (butane) exist as a gas at 25Â ® C and 1 atm 12) The enthalpy of vaporization of liquid mercury is 59.11kJ/mol. What quantity of energy as heat is required to vaporize 0.500 mL of mercury at 357Â ®C, its normal boiling point? The density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL. 2.0 kJ 16) Figure 12.17 a) if water is placed in a sealed milk carton at 60 degrees Celsius and sealed tightly and allowed to cool, eventually there will be an equilibrium of liquid and vapor. Gas is not able to escape and masses of the liquid and vapor remain constant. b) assuming that the temperature your hand is below 34.6 degrees Celsius, liquid diethyl ether should remain a liquid if dropped on your hand. 22) Vapor pressure data for octane C8H18 38.6 kJ/mol, normal boiling point 128Â ® C 26) What factors affect the viscosity of a substance? Temperature, size of the molecule, polarity, and the amount of substance present affect viscosity. Which of the following substances is expected to have the highest viscosity? Glycerol has the highest viscosity because it has the greatest amount of intermolecular forces. Should viscosity of a substance be affected by temperature? Explain. As the temperature of a liquid increases the kinetic energy required to separate the intermolecular forces also increases. The amount of separation that occurs is a measure of the viscosity, the opposite effect occurs when a liquid is cooled as the energy level is minimal.

Problems in Economic Developments assignment Example

Problems in Economic Developments assignment Example Problems in Economic Development's assignment – Assignment Example Section 1) Real GDP per capita(c) 2) D all of the above 3) A sub-saharan Africa 4) D south and east asia 5) B decreased 6) A 7) C 8) B 9) D 10) A Section 2 1) a) b) sachs c) He suggest that the foreign aid should increase drastically if this underdeveloped countries are to develop. 2) a) badlandia has more inequality since its ratio tends towards 1 where inequality is at maximum. The higher the value of the coecient,the higher the inequality of income distribution; the lower it is, the moreequal the distribution of income. b) 0.25 c) for tylandia is above because it represents less inequality therefore there is little gap between it and 45 degrees line 3) a) economic growth refers to the increase in national income while economic development refers to improvement in basic living conditions or standard of living. b) It is harder to measure development because it can easily be quantified. Growth is easily measurable because of its numerical nature. Development also involves looking at many conditions satisfaction of which defines whether one is poor or not. c) Human development index. d) There are many indices because in order to certify whether one living conditions has improved or not different variables and conditions have to be looked at but not one. To be on good living standard one has to meet several basic living standards. e) 4) a) Us GDP= 101200 $, Thai GDP= 206,000 baht b) Thai GDP= 6867 $ c) 11,200 $ 5) a) The main channel where inequality will increase growth is in instances whereby the top in the society with highest income saves more and invest. When they invest they create opportunities for the rest of the main stream population. Because savings rate increase with income the richer individuals will invest more in economic growth. b) -Changing institutions, whereby institution are converted to cater for the need of the poor rather than being development oriented. - Political instability, whereby the poor up rise against perceived oppression by the richer - Dampen aspirations, this leads to frustration and resulting to crime - Dependence, increase dependence lower savings rate and as result low level of investment

EssayIt is not justifiable to manipulate 2

EssayIt is not justifiable to manipulate 2 EssayIt is not justifiable to manipulate 2 Essay It is not justifiable to manipulate people’s lives for our entertainment, if they do not know about it. If people have a choice of being put on national television and know that their lives will be influenced by the media, this is okay. In the movie ‘The Truman Show’, directed by Peter Weir, demonstrates that Truman Burbank has no idea that he is on national television and this is a terrible thing to do to somebody. In most cases people audition to go onto television for the rewards, whether it is for money, prizes or fame. ‘Big Brother’ a worldwide television show clearly represents these characteristics; it shows that controlling people’s lives can be acceptable in some cases. Truman Burbank’s life has been manipulated from birth. Truman was an unwanted baby. Born to parents that had not planned for his birth, he was even born in front of a live audience. He was then adopted by Christof and became a star of a television show. Network Executive: â€Å"For God's sake, Chris! The whole world is watching. We can’t let him die in front of a live audience!† Christof: â€Å"He was born in front of a live audience.† This clearly states that the world has been watching his every move since birth. Truman’s relationships were manipulated for the sake of the audience’s benefit. When Truman had an opportunity to control his own love life, it was taken away from him. Quite by accident Truman meets Sylvia in the library, there was an instant attraction and the media could not allow this to happen as it would jeopardise the continuation of the show. Immediately Meryl is sent in to prevent a relationship occurring. Sylvia: â€Å"listen to me: Everybody knows about you. Everybody knows everything you do. They’re pretending, Truman. Do you understand? Everybody’s pretending!† Sylvia is clearly a threat to the ongoing success of ‘The Truman Show’. Truman’s choices are constantly being manipulated to insure the ongoing success of the show. As a child Truman wanted to be an explorer but was told that there was nothing left to discover and there was no point. Young Truman: â€Å"I want to be an explorer, like the Great Magellan.† Teacher: [indicating a map of the world] â€Å"Oh, you're too late! There's nothing left to explore!† This clearly indicates the media is controlling Truman’s thoughts and containing him to the town he is currently living in at the time. When Truman was starting to suspect the truth of what really was going on, he told his best friend. Marlon and Christof only cared about changing his mind to make sure the show did not go off the air. They just toy with Truman’s

History of the Lindbergh Baby Kidnapping

History of the Lindbergh Baby Kidnapping On the evening of March 1, 1932, famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and his wife put their 20-month-old baby, Charles (â€Å"Charlie†) Augustus Lindbergh Jr., to bed in his upstairs nursery. However, when Charlie’s nurse went to check on him at 10 pm, he was gone; someone had kidnapped him. News of the kidnapping shocked the world. While the Lindberghs were dealing with ransom notes that promised the safe return of their son, a truck driver stumbled upon the decomposing remains of little Charlie on May 12, 1932, in a shallow grave less than five miles from where he had been taken. Now looking for a murderer, the police, FBI, and other government agencies stepped up their manhunt. After two years, they caught Bruno Richard Hauptmann, who was convicted of first-degree murder and executed. Charles Lindbergh, American Hero Young, good looking, and shy, Charles Lindbergh made Americans proud when he was the first to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean in May 1927. His accomplishment, as well as his demeanor, endeared him to the public and he soon became one of the most popular people in the world. The dashing and popular young aviator didn’t stay single long. On a tour of Latin America in December 1927, Lindbergh met heiress Anne Morrow in Mexico, where her father was the U.S. ambassador. During their courtship, Lindbergh taught Morrow to fly and she eventually became Lindbergh’s co-pilot, helping him survey transatlantic air routes. The young couple married on May 27, 1929; Morrow was 23 and Lindbergh was 27. Their first child, Charles (â€Å"Charlie†) Augustus Lindbergh Jr., was born on June 22, 1930. His birth was publicized around the globe; the press called him â€Å"the Eaglet,† a nickname stemming from Lindbergh’s own moniker, â€Å"the Lone Eagle.† The Lindbergh’s New House The famous couple, now with a famous son, tried to escape the limelight by building a 20-room house in a secluded spot in the Sourland Mountains of central New Jersey, near the town of Hopewell. While the estate was being built, the Lindberghs stayed with Morrow’s family in Englewood, New Jersey, but when the house was nearing completion, they’d often stay the weekends at their new home.  Thus, it was an anomaly that the Lindberghs were still at their new home on Tuesday, March 1, 1932. Little Charlie had come down with a cold and so the Lindberghs had decided to stay rather than travel back to Englewood. Staying with the Lindberghs that night were a housekeeping couple and the baby’s nurse, Betty Gow. Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr, son of the American aviator, on his first birthday. A few months later he was kidnapped from his home and murdered. (Photo by BIPS/Getty Images) Events of the Kidnapping Little Charlie still had a cold when he went to bed that night on March 1, 1932 in his nursery on the second floor. Around 8 pm, his nurse went to check on him and all seemed well. Then around 10 pm, nurse Gow checked in on him again and he was gone. She rushed to tell the Lindberghs. After making a quick search of the house and not finding little Charlie, Lindbergh called the police. There were muddy footprints on the floor and the window to the nursery was wide open. Fearing the worst, Lindbergh grabbed his rifle and went out into the woods to look for his son. The police arrived and thoroughly searched the grounds. They found a homemade ladder believed to have been used to kidnap Charlie due to scrape marks on the outside of the house near the second-floor window. Also found was a ransom note on the nursery’s windowsill demanding $50,000 in return for the baby. The note warned Lindbergh there would be trouble if he involved the police. The note had misspellings and the dollar sign was placed after the ransom amount. Some of the misspellings, such as â€Å"the child is in gute care,† led the police to suspect a recent immigrant was involved in the kidnapping. A postcard from the kidnapper.The kidnapping of Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Jr, the eldest son of aviator Charles Lindbergh and Anne Morrow Lindbergh, was one of the most highly publicized crimes of the 20th century. Print Collector/Getty Images / Getty Images The Liaison On March 9, 1932, a 72-year-old retired teacher from the Bronx named Dr. John Condon called the Lindberghs and claimed that he had written a letter to the Bronx Home News offering to act as an intermediary between Lindbergh and the kidnapper(s). According to Condon, the day after his letter was published, the kidnapper contacted him. Desperate to get his son back, Lindbergh allowed Condon to be his liaison and kept the police at bay. On April 2, 1932, Dr. Condon delivered the ransom money of gold certificates (serial numbers recorded by the police) to a man at St. Raymonds Cemetery, while Lindbergh waited in a nearby car. The man (known as Cemetery John) did not give the baby to Condon, but instead gave Condon a note revealing the babys location – on a boat called the Nelly, between Horseneck beach and Gay Head near Elizabeth Island. However, after a thorough search of the area, no boat was found, nor the baby. On May 12, 1932, a truck driver found the baby’s decomposed body in the woods a few miles from the Lindbergh estate. It was believed that the child had been dead since the night of the kidnapping; the baby’s skull was fractured. Police speculated that the kidnapper might have dropped the baby when he came down the ladder from the second floor. Kidnapper Captured For two years, the police and the FBI watched for serial numbers from the ransom money, providing the list of numbers to banks and stores. In September 1934, one of the gold certificates showed up at a gas station in New York. The gas attendant became suspicious since gold certificates had gone out of circulation the year before and the man purchasing gas had spent a $10 gold certificate to buy only 98 cents of gas. Worried that the gold certificate might be counterfeit, the gas attendant wrote down the license plate number of the car on the gold certificate and gave it to the police. When the police tracked down the car, they found that it belonged to Bruno Richard Hauptmann, an illegal German immigrant carpenter. Police ran a check on Hauptmann and found that Hauptmann had a criminal record in his hometown of Kamenz, Germany, where he had used a ladder to climb into the second-story window of a home to steal money and watches. Police searched Hauptmann’s home in the Bronx and found $14,000 of the Lindbergh ransom money hidden in his garage. Evidence Hauptmann was arrested on September 19, 1934, and tried for murder beginning on January 2, 1935. Evidence included the homemade ladder, which matched boards missing from Hauptmann’s attic floorboards; a writing sample that reportedly matched the writing on the ransom note; and a witness that claimed to have seen Hauptmann on the Lindbergh estate the day before the crime. Additionally, other witnesses claimed that Hauptmann gave them the ransomed bills at various businesses; Condon claimed to recognize Hauptmann as Cemetery John; and Lindbergh claimed to recognize Hauptmann’s German accent from the graveyard. Hauptmann took the stand, but his denials did not convince the court. On February 13, 1935, the jury convicted Hauptmann of first-degree murder. He was put to death by electric chair on April 3, 1936, for the murder of Charles A. Lindbergh Jr.

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Assignment Example Prodcts and Services LUBRICANTS ADNOC Distribution is one of the key suppliers of lubricants worldwide. The lubricants manufactured, marketed and distributed by ADNOC varies from engine oils, industrial, marine and hydraulic lubricants, and highly specialized oils and greases. As with all products, ADNOC’s lubricants are formulated to meet the highest quality level as prescribed by the international bodies such as international institutions such as the American Petroleum Institute (API), the US Military Authorities, the British Defense Force (DEF/STAN) and the Committee of European Engine Manufacturers (CCMC). ADNOC Distribution has operated a state-of-the-art lubricants testing, blending and packaging plant since 1979. ADNOC Distribution’s lubricant operation is regarded as one of the best blending and packaging plants in the region. AVIATION SERVICES ADNOC Distribution supplies fuels and services, to the aviation industry. This service is facilitated by its access to an extensive network of production and refinery facilities.   This is further supported by ADNOC’s efficient and reliable network. ... Customers can choose from a full range of octane levels, through its service stations. ADNOC also offers other vehicle services in its service stations. In 2000, ADNOC added Oasis Convenience Stores facility in its service stations, to provide value-addition. ADNOC has also recognized growing consumer interest in cleaner and environmental friendly fuels such as natural gas. ADNOC is in the process of developing a comprehensive network of natural gas pipelines throughout the city of Abu Dhabi, which will ensure a reliable delivery method directly to consumer’s homes and offices. (ADNOC Distribution Website) ADNOC – Vision and Mission The falcon in the emblem of ADNOC represents its noble vision of confidence, leadership, reliability, pride, alertness, responsiveness, and dynamism. As stated in its Mission statement (ADNOC Distribution Company Profile 2007: pp27) – ADNOC Distribution’s mission is to become the region’s leader in the marketing and dist ribution of refined petroleum products and associated services through: †¢ Respected earnings for our shareholders. †¢ Service excellence to our customers. †¢ Development and involvement of employees. †¢ Operational excellence in our business processes. To achieve our mission, we will constantly seek growth opportunities while respecting our core values and business ethics. ADNOC The Organization ADNOC is organized under a General Manager, into three separate divisions of Commercial, Operations and Service Support, each headed by an Assistant General Manager. While the Commercial division includes Sales & Marketing, Public Relations and Call center, Operations include HSE (See later ADNOC initiatives), Service

Discuss by collecting and analyzing historical data and by giving Essay - 1

Discuss by collecting and analyzing historical data and by giving up-to-date real life example(s) from the American, UK or Europ - Essay Example The large scale of these interferences has brought intense public inspection of the Federal Reserve's institutional and power structure. Particularly, many have questioned why the Fed has the liberty to engage in such proceedings without the explicit approval from president or the Congress. This political interruption of independence is generally referred to as the independence of central bank. This essay focuses on assessing why Congress made the Fed’s independent when it created it in 1913. The important point to remember is that giving the central bank independence is the greatest way for governments to tie their own hands and put an end to them from misusing economic policies for temporary political causes. In the year of 1913, Congress purposefully formed the Federal Reserve as an independent and self-governing central bank, which formed a fundamental tension: how to guarantee that the Fed remains answerable to the voters without losing its independence. Over the years, t here have been various changes in the structure of Fed to improve its credibility, independence, answerability, and transparency. These changes have guided to a healthier institutional design that ultimately renders policy believable and based on sound financial reasoning, as against politics. In times of economic and financial crisis, there is a comprehensible tendency to reexamine the structure and formation of the Federal Reserve System. A central bank's independence, on the other hand, is the key tool to guarantee a government not misusing monetary strategy for short-term political reasons. In a currently well-known article that was published in the year of 1993, Summers and Alesina found that developed (advanced) nations with high levels of central bank independence also practiced lower average levels of inflation rate from the period of 1955-1988 (Farlex 2013: 1). Figure 1 reprints the chart from their essay, which clearly demonstrates this negative relation. Central Bank Inde pendence and Inflation: â€Å" Figure 1 Central Bank Independence versus Average Inflation. (Louis 2009: 1) More recently, as the top diagram in Figure 2 demonstrates, global inflation has slowed highly since the mid-1990s. On the other hand, as the bottom two diagrams point out, the rapid fall in global inflation was primarily due to growths in emerging marketplace and developing countries. In the advanced nations, the slowing happened much earlier, in the early 1980s. There were numerous causes for the global decline in inflation since the late 1980s, and this included stronger commitments to stability of the price (superior monetary policies), high rates of growth of productivity and the forces of globalization that increased rivalry and enhanced the elasticity of product and labor markets. As recommended by Summers and Alesina, increased independence of central bank appears to be another key motive for the decline in worldwide inflation (Farlex 2013: 1). As publicized in the ta ble below, there was a noticeable increase in central bank independence among the period 1980-89 and 2003. Though this trend was apparent and noticeable among advanced countries, it was particularly visible among developing countries and emerging market. Indeed, majority of the reforms that enhanced independence of the central bank occurred for the period of the 1990s and were in response to high levels of inflatio

Sibelius symphony no.7 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Sibelius symphony no.7 - Research Paper Example Additionally other works inspired by the Finnish culture include over 100 songs for piano and Voice. Some of the works include the opera music, Masonic ritual music, piano music and chamber music (Rahkonen, 2011). Sibelius composed up to the middle of 1920s, but since his production of the Seventh symphony in the year 1924, in the year 1926 when he produced "tone poem Tapiola" and "music to The Tempest" and he went quite since then. Sibelius has not produced other significant works. He is reputed to have stopped producing, but there have been some efforts to compose the eighth symphony. During the last periods of his life, he edited and wrote music for the Masonic. Although the man had an interest in developing new music, he was not much enthusiastic about modern music (Rahkonen, 2011). The Finnish nation mark a flag day on the 8 December to celebrate the composers birthday, and his image featured in the 100-mark bill until the year 2002 when it went out of circulation. Sibelius was born in Finland in the Russian Grand Duchy. He was the son of a Swedish doctor Gustaf Sibelius and Maria Sibelius. His real Swedish and Finnish name was "Janne" but he is known universally by the name Jean a French version that he adopted during his schooling years after being inspired by name in a business card of his uncle. His first language was Swedish, but he got a chance to go to Finnish speaking school from 1876 to 1885. From the age of 15, Jean has set out to be a Violin player; and he did accomplish his passion by performing the two last movements in Helsinki. After graduating from high school education, Jean Sibelius proceeded to study law at the prestigious imperial Alexander University of Finland. However, he eventually left his studies to concentrate in performing music (Costabile-Heming, 2004). From the year 1885 to 1889, Jean studied music in the Sibelius academy (formerly known as the Helsiki School of music). He

Accident Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Accident - Essay Example For days while the driver is facing this terrible situation, his father is calling many friends and community leaders to try to get them help. The father is upset as he believes strongly that the situation is not his son’s fault and he finally finds a lawyer willing to represent the case. The attorney is a respected businessman who is kindly waiting at the courthouse, ready to do his level best to defend the driver. Though glad to have help, it is a very hard day at the court since everyone being seen by the judge is a killer. The driver feels very strongly that he is being compared to very violent criminals by the authorities. Fortunately the judge informs the driver that if he does not get into any kind of legal trouble over the next year, he will not be punished for the accident. This was very good because he is obviously so very nervous that the court will not believe that it was the riders fault. The driver agrees to stay out of trouble for a year which he claims is not much of a problem since he has never been arrested before. What a very lucky driver to have support and not have to go to

Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Analysis Paper - Essay Example A powerful research study, namely â€Å"Stress Tolerance: New Challenges for Millennial College Students† has been selected for studying thoroughly on this subject-matter before drawing conclusions. This essay was written in June 2012 collectively by four authors: Helen W. Bland, Bridget F. Melton, Paul Welle and Lauren Bigham. The authors deliver the idea therein that relatively newer generations have poor control and tolerance against stress and eventually they engage themselves in avoidance and denial strategies that are damaging for their welfare. The authors have targeted the college students of millennial generations, their families and their mentors who play a pivotal role in personal and professional development of students. I strongly believe that although stress might not be of severe degree as depicted by this article, still considerable amount of trauma is faced by these teenagers and thus measures need to be taken to help them overcome these obstacles. This stud y presents concrete arguments for its thesis and has proved to be highly effective for my research, providing me with extensive literature material and fruitful research benefits. This article entails possible causes for stress, found in college students, alongwith potential solutions to overcome it as it poses severe psychological and physical threats to sensitive youngsters during their critical ages. It concludes that millennial generations bear adverse characteristics and indulge in unproductive activities to fight stress. My perception revolves more or less around the same grounds as those exhibited by the authors of article in focus. The major part of thesis supported by authors is in line with my personal dissertation regarding this subject-matter: college students desperately need to be more trained to learn coping strategies that shall prove to be helpful for them, in their couple of years spent while studying for an undergraduate degree, to excel at pressure-handling and stress-busting tools and techniques. The essay selected is persuasive and effective in most of the arguments presented except for few areas where authors have made controversial claims, contradictory to my beliefs. They have been discussed in the following paragraphs: The opening section of the selected article contains an expression stating â€Å"college years have been considered as one of the most stressful times in a person's life† (Bland et al. 362). The above statement is highly subjective and prejudiced to personal experiences and mindsets. The authors are of the view that college life represents one of the most traumatic periods. On the contrary, the masses believe college life to be one of the most memorable periods of life spent in leisure, with no responsibilities and tension. I strongly believe that the later parts of human lives are far more stressful than college days due to pressure to earn a livelihood and survive in the competitive world. In spite of some powerful notions presented by authors, the exaggerated aspects of the essay weaken their position. The minor degree of academic stress and pressures to meet expectations can, on the other hand, prove out to be positive energy (known as eu-stress) for the students to work hard and perform well. Similarly, the limitations paragraph clearly states, â€Å"Since the participants were solicited from a medium-size university in the southeastern portion of the United States, the results of the study may not be representative of all college millennials†

Taxation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 3

Taxation - Essay Example The taxation of household savings gives five reasons for this. The first point he gives is that the way savings are taxed is an important mode of the tax base. 1If individuals savings are taxed together with incomes and toil wages and all the elements of the tax base are evenly taxed, it leads to what is called comprehensive income tax. On the other hand, if wages are not taxed till when they are utilized, then the yielding tax structure will be a consumption tax. The next reason that is stated is that the manner in which tax is levied on savings is a key factor which determines the way tax structure identifies various relational in life income, contrary to the yearly revenue. Taxation of savings separates individual wage taxation and taxation of cooperate profits. The way in which savings are taxed can effect the independent business people, small businesses and disbursement of capital to huge companies. Taxation of savings can have an impact on summation of savings in the economy as well as, apparently more vital, the manner in which those sa vings are distributed across various capitals. This can have an effect on the total sum of main money invested and how well it is invested. Savings taxation influences individuals resolution on the amount of money they want to save, the time to save and the risk they are willing to incur when apportioning their savings among assets.2 Hence it directly have an impact on their well-being especially in retired times or economic decline, when they may have a need depend on savings they have gathered. The current taxation system is based on peoples real saving action. People save so that they can be able to use their saving at a later time or during the time of need. They deny themselves the use of their money today so that they can save for a rainy day in future as well as accumulate wealth. The case of not taxing the normal

Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Analysis Paper - Essay Example A powerful research study, namely â€Å"Stress Tolerance: New Challenges for Millennial College Students† has been selected for studying thoroughly on this subject-matter before drawing conclusions. This essay was written in June 2012 collectively by four authors: Helen W. Bland, Bridget F. Melton, Paul Welle and Lauren Bigham. The authors deliver the idea therein that relatively newer generations have poor control and tolerance against stress and eventually they engage themselves in avoidance and denial strategies that are damaging for their welfare. The authors have targeted the college students of millennial generations, their families and their mentors who play a pivotal role in personal and professional development of students. I strongly believe that although stress might not be of severe degree as depicted by this article, still considerable amount of trauma is faced by these teenagers and thus measures need to be taken to help them overcome these obstacles. This stud y presents concrete arguments for its thesis and has proved to be highly effective for my research, providing me with extensive literature material and fruitful research benefits. This article entails possible causes for stress, found in college students, alongwith potential solutions to overcome it as it poses severe psychological and physical threats to sensitive youngsters during their critical ages. It concludes that millennial generations bear adverse characteristics and indulge in unproductive activities to fight stress. My perception revolves more or less around the same grounds as those exhibited by the authors of article in focus. The major part of thesis supported by authors is in line with my personal dissertation regarding this subject-matter: college students desperately need to be more trained to learn coping strategies that shall prove to be helpful for them, in their couple of years spent while studying for an undergraduate degree, to excel at pressure-handling and stress-busting tools and techniques. The essay selected is persuasive and effective in most of the arguments presented except for few areas where authors have made controversial claims, contradictory to my beliefs. They have been discussed in the following paragraphs: The opening section of the selected article contains an expression stating â€Å"college years have been considered as one of the most stressful times in a person's life† (Bland et al. 362). The above statement is highly subjective and prejudiced to personal experiences and mindsets. The authors are of the view that college life represents one of the most traumatic periods. On the contrary, the masses believe college life to be one of the most memorable periods of life spent in leisure, with no responsibilities and tension. I strongly believe that the later parts of human lives are far more stressful than college days due to pressure to earn a livelihood and survive in the competitive world. In spite of some powerful notions presented by authors, the exaggerated aspects of the essay weaken their position. The minor degree of academic stress and pressures to meet expectations can, on the other hand, prove out to be positive energy (known as eu-stress) for the students to work hard and perform well. Similarly, the limitations paragraph clearly states, â€Å"Since the participants were solicited from a medium-size university in the southeastern portion of the United States, the results of the study may not be representative of all college millennials†

Jane Eyre Essay Example for Free

Jane Eyre Essay How does Charlotte Bronte engage the reader’s sympathy for Jane Eyre in the opening two chapters of the novel? Charlotte Bronte the third daughter of Patrick and Maria Bronte, who was born in 1816 at Thornton, a moorland village near Bradford and was almost four when the family moved to Haworth. There, she, like the rest of her family was to spend almost all her life. The family liked privacy and since Mr. Bronte was busy with work and their mother was ill with cancer and died after only 18 months at Haworth, the children spent all their time together and were extremely close. The nurse who looked after Mrs. Bronte said that they were different from any children she had ever seen because they seemed so quiet and serious. When Charlotte was eight, Mr. Bronte sent her, with Maria, Elizabeth and later Emily, to a school for the daughters of clergy at Cowan Bridge. He thought education would be useful to his girls in the future, but their experiences were all too similar to those Charlotte Bronte gives Jane Eyre at Lowood. Maria and Elizabeth both died of tuberculosis, after less than a year, and Charlotte and Emily were taken away from the school and returned to studying at home with their father. Charlotte considered herself to be very plain, even ugly, and did not really hope for marriage, although she received three proposals. Like Jane Eyre, she was always sad that she was not more obviously attractive. Beauty was something she admired and longed for. At Roe Head, she worked hard, was successful and made several long life friends. She hated the job but when she was not teaching or marking books she had to work at mending the pupils’ clothes. She became so depressed and ill that she had to leave. The next idea was that the girls should set up a school of their own. In order to finish training for this, Charlotte and Emily went to study in Brussels. As well as learning much, however, she fell in love with Monsieur Heger, the husband of the head of her school. No real relationship could ever develop, apart from friendship, and she left Brussels broken-hearted. This Experience provided the ideas for two of her books â€Å"The Professor† and â€Å"Villette†. At the age of 38, Charlotte agreed to marry Arthur Bell Nicholls, a curate who assisted her father for many years and who had loved her for a very long time. She had rejected his affection in the past, but their marriage was successful and they developed a happy companionship so it was all the more tragic that she enjoyed it for only one year. She died in 1855 of complications arising from pregnancy. Her father, who had outlived all her children, had said that â€Å"she was not strong enough/for marriage†. Bronte engages sympathy towards Jane because of the utilization of the first person by the narrator. â€Å"I was glad of it: I never liked long walks. † By using ‘I’ the writer ensures that we see things and feel things from Jane’s point of view. We have empathy for her. Jane is made to feel isolated when the Reeds sit together and exclude her. â€Å"The said Eliza, John, and Georgiana were now clustered round their mama in the drawing-room†. Also, we feel compassion when Aunt Reed talks to her and tells her that she does not want her to be in with her own children since she was very rude when she was near her elders. Sympathy is engaged again when Jane goes to the breakfast-room alone because she was told to sit somewhere else and be silent until she could speak pleasantly. In the Breakfast room Jane finds a bookcase. Soon she was â€Å"possessed† by a volume which she made sure should be one â€Å"stored with pictures†. As she looked the book she describes the landscapes in the book are and the places where they may be found. The reader is completely on Jane’s side when John Reed verbally and physically abuses her. â€Å"The volume was flung, it hit me, and I fell, striking my head against the door and cutting it† â€Å"I felt him grasp my hair and my shoulder†. The reason for this is because of the brutality described. Jane tries to fight back but Miss Abbot and the nurse pull her away from John, and they hold her down. â€Å"My impulse was to rise from it like a spring; their two pairs of hands arrested me instantly. † Although John is bigger physically she still wants to attack him, because he said, she was less than a servant to him. †Master! How is he my master? Am I a servant? † â€Å"No; you are less than a servant. † Nobody is on Jane’s side, not even the servants. They all came to rescue John Reed from Jane. Again, our sympathy for Jane is reinforced. The sheer injustice of Jane’s circumstances gets our sympathy. Nobody accepts her version of events, even though Mrs. Reed is aware that John has been bullying Jane. â€Å"He bullied and punished me; not two or three times in the week, nor once or twice in the day, but continually. † â€Å"Every nerve I had feared him, and every morsel of flesh in my body shrank when he came near. † â€Å"†¦the servants did not like to offend their young master by taking my part against him and Mrs. Reed was blind and deaf in the subject: she never saw him strike or heard him abuse me†¦.. †. Again, the reader’s sympathy is engaged when we hear that Bessie will tie Jane to a stool in the Red Room. â€Å"If you don’t sit still, you must be tied down, said Bessie. † This is a complete over-reaction. Abbot and Bessie talked about their opinions of Jane in front of her which is very rude. â€Å"And you ought not to think yourself an equality with the Misses Reed and Master Reed, because Missis kindly allows you to be brought up with them. † Jane describes the Red Room as being very grand but cold. She also states that it is not frequented by people much because Mr. Reed had died there nine years ago. â€Å"Only the housemaid went there by herself on Saturdays, to wipe from the mirrors and furniture a week’s quiet dust: and Mrs.Reed herself, at far intervals, visited it to review the contents of a certain secret drawer in the wardrobe, where were stored divers parchments, her jewel-casket, and a miniature of her diseased husband; and in those last words lies the secret of the red-room – the spell which kept it so lonely in spite of its grandeur. † Jane’s childish imagination is engaged when she realises she has been locked into this forbidding room. She sees herself in the mirror – ghostly as she remembered Bessie’s stories about phantoms. Superstition is with Jane. We now hear Jane’s opinion about her unfortunate situation. Our compassion is with her as we hear her side of the story. â€Å"John Reed’s violent tyrannies, all his sisters’ proud indifference, all his mother’s aversion, all the servants’ partiality, turned up in my disturbed mind like a dark deposit in a turbid well. † She talks about John’s behaviour and tells us that he has mentally affected her and this indicates that she would be more that happy to run away just for his sake. â€Å"Georgiana, who had a spoiled temper, a very acrid spite, a captious and insolent carriage, was universally indulged. â€Å"

Biological Control as a Pest Management Strategy

Biological Control as a Pest Management Strategy Several researches were carried out by different organisations in Mauritius to implement biological control in Mauritius as a component of our local Integrated Pest Management strategies. However, it can still be observed that most of the natural enemies which have been introduced over the past few years are unable to match up with their expected efficacy on the field. Only a portion of the introduced natural enemies are very efficient in pest control and maintaining their level of infestation below the economic threshold level, for example, natural enemies used in sugar cane field are very effective and necessitates no pesticide and herbicide use to control pests thus, reducing the cost of sugar cane production. However, those vegetables planters in Mauritius that are aware of the principles of biological control tend to misjudge the use of biological control as a method of pest management, they are both right and wrong in certain ways. Based on the data collected during this research, it can be clearly seen that the efficacy of natural enemies differ from region to region. Depending on the natural enemy species, some are more effective in certain regions compared to others. Some natural enemies have the potential of being a very good effective biological control, however, it is seen that their performance on field is not sufficiently satisfactory. Before implementing a new biological control programme, several procedures are followed so as to choose the best performing natural enemies. Threats to natural enemies’ efficacy are present in many forms. The biggest threat and most common one is the application and overuse of chemicals such as pesticides and insecticides. Based on the survey data obtained, it is seen that most farmers apply pesticide every week. The use of chemical pesticides has increased significantly during the past 10 years. The application and pesticide residuals are severe threats to natural enemies, most especially parasitic wasps, flies and predators. A good example would be planter N01 where a sample of Plutella xylostella (L) was collected to evaluate the parasitoid Cotesia plutellae. The farmer makes use of selective pesticides and applies a minimum amount on his infected plants and the rate of pesticide application is every 2 weeks. The efficacy of Cotesia plutellae in his field was seen to be as much as 50% that is, half of the larvae evaluated were parasitized by the wasp. On the other hand, another sample of Plutella xylostella (L) was collected on planter’s W02 field and the efficacy of Cotesia plutellae evaluated was found to be much lower than the N01 sample, 16% respectively. From the survey data, it was seen that planter W02 makes use or a larger selection of chemicals and applies them every week, the rate of pesticide application is twice as more for planter W02 than for N01.Another interesting observation made while carrying out the survey. It was the way some of the planters prepare their pesticide solution, some of them clearly use much more pesticide than the amount recommended. Some of them tend to mix several pesticides together and made a pesticide â€Å"cocktail† out of them, making the final solution have a broader spectrum. Though the prepared pesticide cocktail solution might be effective against the pest, but it also has a negative impact on natural enemies present on the field or the surrounding fields. Due to the â€Å"cocktail effect†, it is possible that chemicals in the mixture might interact to produce an increase in its toxicity. This might be a reason for the low efficacy of natural enemies. Farmer A may be taking good measures of IPM and using less chemicals, but the overuse and misuse of pesticides by the other nearby farmer(s) will sure affect biological control on farmer’s A field. Another case encountered with high natural enemy efficacy is with sample W01 which consisted of Aphis gossypi collected a Saint Martin, a village situated in the West of Mauritius. The efficacy of the parasitoid wasp Lysiphlebus testaceipes was of 48%. The sample was collected on a calabash plant. What was most interesting was that calabash was not the planter’s main crop, only a few trees were planted at the corner of the field and let to grow without taking care of and no pesticide and other chemical application. This might be why the efficacy of the parasitoid was relatively high. A very important cause of biological control failure is the planter’s attitude and knowledge about natural enemies and biological control. Most farmers surveyed had very good knowledge about the pest threat they usually face, they also can identify the damage causing pest and use appropriate measures. On the contrary, it was found that most of them (97%) do not have any knowledge on biologi cal control, they did not know the existence of beneficial organism controlling damage causing ones. For this reason, they cannot be expected to recognise and adopt conservative measures to preserve natural enemies, such as formerly mentioned, reduce pesticide use, habitat management and modify biological and ecological aspects to enhance natural enemies such as elimination of secondary enemies. It is believed that sensitisation by the responsible authorities is important to the planters so as to improve the overall IPM in Mauritius. On the other hand, even if proper sensitisation is made to all planters, it might still be quite challenging to increase the natural enemy efficacy. Most planters in Mauritius have a mindset that makes them disbelief in something they do not see with their own eyes. Also, farmers won’t be willing to abandon their traditions which were passed on to them by their parents and grandparents. The use of chemicals in Mauritian agriculture is far from being regulated. Farmers say that their budget are often limited and that they cannot take risks of trying something new due to the fear of it not being a success and of losing everything. This is due to the fact that biological control does not completely eliminate the pest population but in fact it only reduces the pest level to a minimum acceptable level. This is usually unacceptable to the farmer who wants to see his field entirely free of any pest. If no proper conservative measures and natural enemy monitoring are applied, another pest outbreak may occur inflicting losses to planters. These are reasons why planters in Mauritius prefer to use pesticides as a method of pest control. Also, though most planters are not willing to change their traditional way of pest control, some of them are sometimes willing to adopt new IPM strategies in order to control pests, such as the use of bait traps and sticky traps, but those traps also act against natural enemies, mostly tiny parasitic wasps. Some good agricultural practices also can contribute in biological control failure, for example, crop rotation is a good way of reducing pest population, but if the host plant essential for the pest survival is not available, neither will be the pest or their respective natural enemy. The use of pest resistant varieties is also a good way to avoid pest outbreaks but is the crop is too resistant to pests, biological control will be very hard to establish if no other sources of habitat and food are present. Another aspect having an effect on natural enemy efficacy evaluated during this research was the climatic factor in the different regions that is mainly the microclimate present in the different sites selected for sample collection. It was found that climate change has an impact on insect phenology and the distribution of phytophagus insects especially Lepidoptera. This explains the rapid development and vast distribution of the pest Plutella xylostella throughout Mauritius. In the chi square test done and presented in table 3.8 in the previous chapter, it was found that the p-value to be less than 0.05 for the natural enemy Cotesia plutella, meaning that the efficacy of the parasitoid is dependent to the climatic factor in different region. In fact, both the hymenoptera parasitoid evaluated was seen to be dependent on climatic factors compared to the other natural enemies evaluated in the chi square test (Refer to Appendix 1). This describes the difference in efficacy of the parasite around Mauritius. It was found by Nofemela, 2004 that the parasitoid Cotesia plutellae can develop on a wide range of temperatures (8.14oC – 33oC), thus, another deduction that can be made about the efficacy of Cotesia plutellae is that the parasitoid density present in the different regions is not the same. In all cases of planter interviewed, it is found that the planters noticed an increase in temperature and in change in rainfall pattern and intensity. The planters also mentioned that the warmer it is, the more the risk of a pest outbreak, for this reason, they usually apply more pesticides in summer. It is concluded a changing (warming) climate and use of chemicals in agriculture are directly and positively related. Despite the fact that some pests became resistant to pesticides and other chemicals, farmers still apply pesticides knowing that no results will be seen. To some extent, climate change will be responsib le for the increasing overuse of chemicals and agriculture which can in turn lead to a decrease in biological control efficacy. A change in insect phenology might also affect the host and natural enemy synchrony, a fail in synchronisation with the host life cycle might cause drastic decline in biological control for reproductive failure. Other factors which was seen to affect the efficacy of natural enemies was the coexistence of the pest with other organisms which provide protection to the pest against natural enemies. The two species of mealy bug studied, the Paracoccus marginatus and the Icerya seychellarum were seen to coexist with ants in all the pest samples collected. The ants harvest a substance called honeydew from them which is secreted by the mealy bugs, and in return they provide protection against natural enemies, mostly predators. The efficacy of the Paracoccus marginatus predator Exochomus laeviusculus might not be the same on the field than the one evaluated in the lab, on the field, especially on papaya trees where the Paracoccus marginatus samples were collected the mealy bugs were found to be compacted on the trees, stems and fruit, like a large white cottony lump. A waxy texture was present on all the mealy bug colonies, this may explain why the pest is being hard to control. The waxy substance pr events chemicals to penetrate into the colony layer and natural enemies can only feed on the lonely nymphs wondering around with no protection. Also several species of ladybugs and other predators like spiders and sparrows were seen on the same tree. Such cases might generate a competition among predators and the efficacy of a selected predator for example the coccinelid Exochomus laeviusculus may not be the same compared to a scenario where the coccinelid is the only predator preying on the pest. A very low parasitism rate was recorded for the parasitoid Cryptochetum monophlebi biological control of the pest Icerya seychellarum, this might be because of the presence of ants, chemicals present in that particular environment, but also, the Cryptochetum monophlebi being the order Diptera. It is known that Dipterans are the favourite food of lizards and some other insectivorous reptiles. Due to the presence of those reptiles on tree fruits, it can be a reason why the efficacy of the parasitoid is too low. The efficacy of the ladybug Nephaspis bicolor, predator of Aleurodicus dispersus was also evaluated in the lab and its efficacy, just like other natural enemies evaluated was seen to vary from region to region. However the efficacy was seen to be very low, although no ants were present where the Aleurodicus disperses sample were collected, the efficacy of the Nephaspis bicolor was as low as for the Exochomus laeviusculus. Coccinellid are more effective when several of them are present, for an efficient biological control using ladybugs, a high population must be available and maintained in the field throughout the crop cycle on which the pest is present. When no food is present, the ladybug beetle will tend to move away to another area where the pest is present or find another sources of food so as for them not starve to death. If only a few are present, they will only prey on a fewer amount of pests, making no differences to the pest population, also, they might get eaten up by bird s or lizards present on the field. However both the ladybugs evaluated are independent to the climatic factor present in the regions in which they were collected (P > 0.05). It means that the regions from which they were collected does not have an effect on their efficacy. Another aspect of IPM for sustainable pest control would be the use of biopesticides, such as microbial pesticides and botanical pesticides. Only 32% of all the planters interviewed know about the availability of this kind of pesticide. Most of them think they are expensive and ineffective. However, since biopesticides are not manufactured locally, the price of the biopesticides is almost the same as for chemical pesticides. This is a reason why planters prefer to buy chemical pesticide and don’t take the risk of purchasing something they are not sure about. Planters also think it is troublesome to prepare their own botanical pesticides using locally available plants such as neem and citronella and much more. Botanical pesticides do not harm the environment and the efficacy of natural enemies will be sure to be boosted if more planters adopt the use of biopesticides. Another interesting observation made while processing the results obtain. It was that the efficacy of natural enemies evaluated in the different agro ecological zones selected does not differ greatly. The efficacies are in the range of 15.8% to 20.2% respectively. It can be concluded that the natural enemies evaluated have a good adaptability to the local climate, which is a major characteristic for being a good natural enemy as failure to adapt to the climate and environmental factors is among the factors in biological control failure. Nevertheless, it is observed the average efficacy is lower in super humid regions compared to sub humid regions. As mentioned earlier, this might be due to the practices of the planters on their farm and also the difference in temperature, causing changes in both the natural enemy and the host pest’s phenology. In crops producing fields in Mauritius, it was deducted that the use of natural enemies is effective to certain extent, but not as effective to be able to control a pest by themselves. This was the case in every area investigated regardless of the land use diversities. The land use also can prove to be very determining in biological control. An example would be the pest Aleurodicus disperses, the sample (CO5) was collected in Vacoas where the citrus trees were in a field situated in a residential area. The trees were found on the road side and were heavily infected near the stem and underneath the leaves. The beetle Nephaspis bicolor was scarce and very difficult to count. On the other hand, sample CO8 of Aleurodicus disperses was collected at Ripailles, the trees were found in a field surrounded by other vegetable fields and sugarcane. The tree was rich in ladybug population, and the beetle Nephaspis bicolor could be easily collected. This proves that land use and vegetative cover h as an impact on the presence of natural enemies. For example, maize areas have a positive effect on ladybug density present and thus, this explains the low pesticide use in maize crops (Zhou, 2014). Vegetative covered areas provide food and shelter for natural enemies. A region of high vegetative cover will tend to have greater densities of natural enemies compared to a region of low vegetative cover or bare land with no vegetation at all. Other crops or trees have abilities to attract some natural enemies, so planting those trees on the field will tend to enhance biological control. Some farmers, especially large scale farmers often wipe out their field to remove everything left after harvesting, this also is a very bad approach if we want biological control to succeed. With no vegetation to provide shelter, the beneficial organisms will tend to move to another habitat or die out. A good monitoring schedule must be setup in order to ensure the status of natural enemies and their efficacy must be evaluated regularly. This is mainly to make sure that biological control is going on smoothly and whether human intervention is needed to provide a boost to the natural enemies in order to increase their performance. However, none of these seem to be present on the field where the evaluations were carried out. Although a very good method of foreign exploration and introduction of natural enemies were done by local organisations, no further monitoring programs are carried out. In some areas of the country, for example Saint Martin, Surinam and Belle Mare, in all which a pest sample was collected, several small planters are present ad a few large scale planters. Their field are close to each other and can be combined together to form a very large area for crop production. The efficacy of the respective natural enemies was very low compared to other areas. The reason might be because each and every farmer makes use of their own type of pesticides in their own personal ways. And pesticides being applied to such a large area will surely cause toxicity to the land and water resources found nearby. Such a large amount of pesticide application decreases the density of the available natural enemies. A lower natural enemy density and failure to reproduce will lead to a fewer amount of parasitized or preyed pest. Ladybug beetles tend to be very good pest destroyer as both the larvae and adults are voracious eater. However, a very interesting observation was made on a papaya tree infested with mealy bugs. Several species of ladybugs were present on the tree. Some unusual activities were observed. A ladybug larva was seen feeding on another ladybug larva which was of a different species. Cannibalism might also be a factor of low efficacy among coccinelid. This is an issue of host specificity and competition among pest predators. Concerning the parasitoids evaluated no cases of hyperparasitism, multiparasitism or superparasitism was detected.

Orson Welles in Citizen Kane Essay -- Papers Movie Film Citizen Kane E

Orson Welles in Citizen Kane Orson Welles produced, directed and starred in Citizen Kane, the classic masterpiece which communicates its original narrative through ground-breaking cinematography, lighting, music, setting, sound and performances. The film has underlying symbols in every single shot, and uses innumerable cinematic devices to convey meaning. One of the many implications Citizen Kane makes is strongly embodied in the sequence of Kane and his wife Susan at their palace, Xanadu. Welles' choice of camera shots, mise-en-scene and movement in this sequence are used effectively to symbolize women's inferiority to men. The manner in which Susan Alexander is shot in this sequence is perhaps the most obvious indication as to how females are portrayed in this film. The majority of shots of Susan are medium or close-up shots; in fact almost all of the close-up shots in the entire film are of Susan. These close shots, especially when taken in moderate to high key lighting, give Susan an air of youthfulness, vulnerabil...

Why Drugs Should Be Legal :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  America is wasting it’s money and resources. It’s trying restrict something on which restrictions don’t have any effects: drugs. People who don’t use recreational drugs don’t do so because of the health risks; people who do use drugs would whether or not they are legal. The fact that they are illegal makes little difference. Nevertheless, $15,000,000,000 goes directly into drug prohibition every year, and has very little effect. Very much money is spent to pay police narcotics officers, fund the D.E.A., and house drug-offenders in prison. The prisons are full of drug-related criminals, and violent offenders go free earlier because of this. Which would you prefer walking the streets, a rapist, or a potsmoker?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Legalizing recreational drugs does not mean making drugs accesible to all people. The drugs that are legal today, alcohol and tobacco (nicotene) aren’t available to just everyone; they are regulated. Only certain people are allowed to buy them. Since the drug trade is unregulated, drugs are sold anywhere they can be (e.g. schools), allowing children to have access to them. If these drugs were illegal, than that trade would stagnate, and children wouldn’t have such easy access to them. It makes sense†¦ do you ever see people in schools selling beer or cigarrettes? Also, the usual cause of drug overdose is the fact that a person cannot know the potency of the drug he/she is taking. There are no standards because the trade of drugs is illegal in the first place. If they were legal, there would be a standard of quality for all drugs, regulated by the FDA.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The state of Georgia has the highest excise tax on liquor of any state. It also has the lowest tax on gasoline (which is good especially now with gas prices the highest ever). If drugs were legal, the government could place such an excise tax on them. In addition to freeing up money used for their prohibition, this extra money could fund the real problems of America, and eliminate our national debt quite quickly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Doing drugs is dangerous, yes†¦ but so is tanning, smoking, drinking, chewing tobacco†¦ the list goes on and on. People are still free to do these things, notwithstanding the fact that they may be stupid acts. The ratio of deaths from tobacco versus drugs is 425:1, and that of alcohol versus drugs is 50:1. Drugs are less dangerous than both of these legal things, and people are still free to do them and not free to do drugs?

Sainsburys Corporate And Business Strategy Education Essay

Maximizing stockholder value Sir Terry Leahy, main executive since the mid 1990s, has adopted courageous measure of tryingnotin the way of on the usualcorporatetune. Our chief purpose is to make value for the clients to derive their life-time trueness this is the company mission.Customer service of class at the higher degree of the company on the other manus to do net income. However it remain to be seen whether tesco keep focal point now widely seems immense corporate success narrative and the taking company in the United Kingdom retail market or if it will give manner to corporate high quality as sometimes go on to chief companies.Sainsbury ‘s corporate & A ; concern schemeAs a taking nutrient retail merchant, they are committed to being best for nutrient and health.Sainsbury end is to offer our clients great choice nutrient at just monetary values Sainsbury ‘s end is to offer our clients great choice nutrient at just monetary values. Their purpose is to assist and actu ate clients to eat a healthy sensible diet by promote vigorous feeding and energetic life styles.Without compromising on gustatory sensation or quality Sainsbury ‘s intend to do merchandises every bit healthy as possible. wherever possible, their squad of over 100 merchandise developers and engineers work to regularly lessening degrees of fat, soaked fat, sugar, salt and additives in our merchandises while looking to increase foods and nutrient groups typically missing in the UK diet.As ‘Best for nutrient and wellness ‘ assisting their clients live healthier life styles. They do this by part great tasting, healthy nutrient at sensible monetary values and thrilling our clients to cook with assurance.We believe that while selling our merchandises doing certain that clients have clear information about merchandises which they buy and give preparation to our co-workers with preparation to avoid the under-age purchasing of intoxicant.Environmental issues are taken earne stly at sainsbury ‘s. They aim to be environmentally accountable in the manner to run their concern.Most of what we use on nutrient, about all of it goes to non-farmers. Uk husbandmans as estimated receive merely 9p of every & A ; lb ; 1 spent on nutrient by the customers.Very less money infact acquire back to the husbandmans, as much money go through the world-wide economic system. Much of the money goes in the history of the large companies like Unilever Nestle and Altria ( Kraft Foods ) and the large supermarkets like Asda/Wal-Mart, Sainsbury ‘s and Tesco which are ruling in the market. Top 10 planetary nutrient retail merchantsCompanyGross saless 2002 ( US $ million )Wal-Mart ( US )246,525Carrefour ( France )64,979Royal Ahold ( Netherlands )59,455Kroger ( US )51,759Metro ( Germany )48,714Tesco ( UK )40,387Costco ( US )38,762Albertson ‘s ( US )35,916Safeway34,799Maximizing net incomes, understating competitionA little figure of transnational companies progressively control the nutrient production in the UK and worldwide. While in every sector the figure of corporations of the nutrient system has fallen, market power of the subsisters has increased, and competition between them has diminished. It is enabling them to take out of all time larger net incomes from the nutrient system. Through a little figure of corporate nutrient processors and retail merchants many husbandmans selling their green goods to 1000000s of clients. Harmonizing to the rules of competitory economic sciences, markets are most valuable when there is strong competition between a figure of co ncerns. Tesco is the British food market and convenience gross revenues monster.Tesco now has belongingss in China and Turkey, every bit good as other important emerging markets.Tesco is the British food market and convenience gross revenues monster.Tesco now has belongingss in China and Turkey, every bit good as other important emerging markets.RevenueFiscal Year2008 47.298 Billion GBP ( $ 74.144 Billion )RevenueFiscal Year2009 54.327 Billion GBP ( $ 85.163 Billion )Gross Growth:14.9 %Net IncomeFiscal Year20082.124 Billion GBP ( $ 3.330 Billion )Net IncomeFiscal Year20092.161 Billion GBP ( $ 3.388 Billion ) .One in every & A ; lb ; 4 spent on just trade merchandises in the Uk says supermarket lb The supermarket says that one in every four lbs and adds that one-year gross revenues of Fair-trade increased by 10 % to & A ; lb ; 218m compared to this clip last twelvemonth. Consumers make picks about where to shop mundane. In Britain consumers have a pick merely on 15 proceedingss drive they find three or more different supermarkets research shows.Consumers can and make alter easy between the shops they use in the food market market. Each clip consumers go for shopping they choose where to utilize their money. From one month to the following If they select to shop in a different shop this would name shift. And the value of this shift has doubled since 2002 and more than & A ; lb ; 10 billion. Wide scope of retail merchants for consumers to take from including Wal Mart/ Asda, Sainsbury, Morrison, Waitrose, M & A ; S, Somerfield, Aldi, Lidl and Netto, other smaller supermarkets, Costco and Makro, the Co-Ops, Symbol groups ( e.g. Premier, Costcutter and Spar ) and 1000s of independent retailers.In food market market has undergone terrible alterations. Sainsbury ‘s and Tesco are crushing the recession bluesOver the last five old ages Sainsbury ‘s had been losing their market portion. But over the past 18 months they got back and these net incomes are the consequence of that, † he said. Over the Last six to 12 months Sainsbury ‘s net income figures are looking backwards. Tesco heads the top 10 list of the most recession-proof retail merchants in Britain, which includes turning Welsh on-line ethical vesture company Howies, at figure six – sandwiched between Waitrose and John Lewis. Sainsbury ‘s is at figure eight. Patrick Minford, Professor of Economics at Cardiff University Business School, said the recession likely started in the 3rd one-fourth, when the Gross Domestic Product fell 0.5 % after a twelvemonth in which money has been really tight. â€Å" There is no town or metropolis that is immune from recession, † he said. From January to September. the retail merchant ‘s pre-tax net incomes plummeted from & A ; lb ; 451.8m in 2007 to & A ; lb ; 297.8m in 2008. Tesco begins new gross revenues scheme to cut down nutrient waste Tesco begins new gross revenues scheme to cut down nutrient waste The UK ‘s largest retail merchant has introduced the first of its new Buy One, acquire One free ulterior trades designed in response to dismaying research demoing the high degrees of nutrient waste. â€Å" Customers truly like our Buy One Get One Free trades but feedback shows smaller families sometimes ca n't utilize the free merchandise before its usage by day of the month, † Lucy Neville-Rolfe, Now we ‘re giving clients the snap to take advantage said by Tesco Executive Director. â€Å" Equally good as giving our clients a flexible new offer, we ‘re assisting them to cut nutrient waste. †Our concern Structure we recognized five countries of focal point in March 2007 to take Sainsbury ‘s from recovery to growing:Great nutrient at just monetary values To do on and widen the lead in nutrient for healthy safe fresh and tasty nutrient Sainsbury ‘s will go on to introduce and provide leading in presenting quality merchandises at flaxen monetary values, sourced with dependability. Reaching more clients through extra channels By opening new convenience shops to enlarge the range of the Sainsbury ‘s trade name, developing the online place bringing operation and turning Sainsbury ‘s Finance. Turning supermarket infinite To enlarge the company ‘s shop estate, actively looking for and developing a grapevine of new shops and widening the mostly immature shop aggregation to supply an even better nutrient offer while besides turning infinite for non-food scopes. Active belongings direction The ownership of belongings assets provides operational snap and the development of possible development chances will maximize value. Sainsbury ‘s offer skills developing Sainsbury ‘s frequently offer some formal short preparations like in stock pickings and stock pickings every bit good as basic maths and English literacy accomplishments tantamount to feve good GCSEs.More employers wants by authorities to offer accomplishments developing classs.

Business Writing Course Essay

Proper written communications in a business is a very specific mark in professionalism. Poor writing and communication in the workplace is mostly attributed to lack of professionalism, lack of proper training, and lack of confidence. Therefore this is a request to take a Business Writing Course at Kaplan University in Urbandale, Iowa. The cost of the course is $1500. 00 which includes all books and necessary course materials. The course begins July 10 and ends August 14, 2013. The course is offered online so all course work and attendance will be in the evenings or weekends so it will not disrupt the schedule at work. The course has to be paid in full by July 1, 2013. As sponsors of the Kaplan University Business Writing Course, Airgead Corporation will benefit because all the course material will be compiled in a binder and given to you for future training purposes. All office personnel will be able to reference all their business professional writing techniques by looking through samples and templates provided in the manual. The text books and all other course materials will become property of Airgead Corporation upon completion of the business writing course. As your Project Manager, this course will significantly improve the ability to write clear, concise, effective messages in professional manner. Writing skills promote effective communication which in turn will increase productivity, success and job satisfaction. Besides improving overall business communication skills, this course will also offer: * Tips on style and writing in first person.

Juvenile delinquency: an integrated approach Essay

Rick: A â€Å"Delinquent Youth† The youth court adjudicated or judged Rick, a 14-year-old, a â€Å"delinquent youth,† for motor vehicle theft and placed him on formal probation for six months. He and a good friend took without permission a car that belonged to Rick’s father. They were pulled over by the police for driving erratically—a classic case of joyriding. Rick was already a familiar figure in the juvenile court. When Rick was 12, he was referred to the court for â€Å"deviant sex† for an incident in which he was caught engaging in sexual activity with a 14-year-old girl. The juvenile court dealt with this offense â€Å"informally.† A probation officer met with Rick and his parents to work out an agreement of informal probation that included â€Å"conditions† or rules, but no petition into court. Not long after this first offense, Rick was taken into custody by the police for curfew violation and, on a separate occasion, vandalism—he and his good friend had gotten drunk and knocked down numerous mailboxes along a rural road. In both of these instances, Rick was taken to the police station and released to his parents. Even though Rick’s first formal appearance in juvenile court was for the auto theft charge, he was already well-known to the police and probation departments. Rick was a very likable kid; he was pleasant and personable. He expressed a great deal of remorse for his delinquent acts and seemed to genuinely desire to change. He had a lot going for him; he was goal-directed, intelligent, and athletic. He interacted well with others, including his parents, teachers, and peers. His best friend, an American Indian boy who lived on a nearby reservation, was the same age as Rick and had many similar personal and social characteristics. Not surprisingly, the boy also had a very similar offense record. In fact, Rick and his friend  were often â€Å"companions in crime,† committing many of their delinquent acts together. Rick was the adopted son of older parents who loved him greatly and saw much ability and potential in him. They were truly perplexed by the trouble he was in, and they struggled to understand why Rick engaged in delinquent acts and what needed to be done about it. Rick, too, seemed to really care about his parents. He spent a good deal of time with them and apparently enjoyed their company. Because Rick was adopted as an infant, these parents were the people he considered family. Rick attended school regularly and earned good grades. He was not disruptive in the classroom or elsewhere in the school. In fact, teachers reported that he was a very positive student both in and out of class and that he was academically motivated. He did his homework and handed in assignments on time. He was also actively involved in sports—football, wrestling, and track and field. Rick’s six months of formal probation for auto theft turned into a twoyear period as he continued to get involved in delinquent acts. Through regular meetings and enforcement of probation conditions, his probation officer tried to work with Rick to break his pattern of delinquency. Such efforts were to no avail. Rick continued to offend, resulting in an almost routine series of court hearings that led to the extension of his probation supervision period. The Study of Juvenile Delinquency The continuing pattern of delinquency included a long list of property and status offenses: minor in possession of alcohol, numerous curfew violations, continued vandalism, minor theft (primarily shoplifting), and continued auto theft, usually involving joyrides in his father’s car. Rick’s â€Å"final† offense was criminal mischief, and it involved extensive destruction of property. Once again, Rick and his best friend â€Å"borrowed† his father’s car, got drunk, and drove to Edina, an affluent suburb of Minneapolis. For no apparent reason, they parked the car and began to walk along France Avenue, a major road with office buildings along each side. After walking a while, they started throwing small rocks toward buildings,  seeing how close they could get. Their range increased quickly and the rocks soon reached their targets, breaking numerous windows. The â€Å"fun† turned into thousands of dollars worth of window breakage in a large number of office buildings. Because of the scale of damage, Rick faced the possibility of being placed in a state training school. As a potential â€Å"loss of liberty case,† Rick was provided with representation by an attorney. This time, the juvenile court’s adjudication process followed formal procedures, including involvement of a prosecutor and a defense attorney. In the preliminary hearing, Rick admitted to the petition (statement of charges against him), and the case was continued to a later date for disposition (sentencing). In the meantime, the judge ordered a predisposition report. The predisposition report is designed to individualize the court’s disposition to â€Å"fit the offender.† The investigation for the report uses multiple sources of information, including information from the arresting officer, parents, school personnel, coaches, employers, friends, relatives, and, most importantly, the offending youth. The predisposition report tries to describe and explain the pattern of delinquency and then offer recommendations for disposition based on the investigation. In Rick’s case, the predisposition report attempted to accurately describe and explain his persistent pattern of property and status offending, and it offered a recommendation for disposition. Finding no information to justify otherwise, the probation officer recommended that Rick be committed to the Department of Corrections for placement at the Red Wing State Training School. Depending on one’s viewpoint, the state training school represented either a last ditch effort for rehabilitation or a means of punishment through restricted freedom. Either way, Rick was viewed as a chronic juvenile offender, with little hope for reform. It was one of those formative experiences. I [coauthor Jim Burfeind] was fresh out of college and newly hired as a probation officer. I was meeting with two experienced attorneys—one the defense, the other the prosecutor. Almost in unison, it seemed, they turned to me and asked, â€Å"Why did Rick do this? Why did he develop such a persistent pattern of delinquency?† They wanted to make sense of Rick’s delinquency, and they wondered how the  juvenile court could best respond to his case. I had become familiar with Rick only in the previous few weeks when his case was reassigned to me as part of my growing caseload as a new probation officer. Now, meeting with the attorneys to gather information for the predisposition | 3 4 | JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH report, I was being asked to explain Rick’s pattern of delinquent behavior to two legal experts who had far more experience in the juvenile justice system than I did. I was, after all, new to the job. How could I possibly know enough to offer an explanation? I also had the daunting responsibility of making a recommendation for disposition that the judge would most likely follow completely. Rick’s future was at stake, and my recommendation would determine the disposition of the juvenile court. As I attempted to respond to the attorneys sitting in front of me, my mind was flooded with questions. The answers to these questions became the basis for my predisposition report—an attempt to explain Rick’s delinquent behavior and, based on this understanding, to recommend what should be done through court disposition. The questions with which I wrestled included the following: Is involvement in delinquency common among adolescents—that is, are most youths delinquent? Maybe Rick was just an unfortunate kid who got caught. Are Rick’s offenses fairly typical of the types of offenses in which youths are involved? Will Rick â€Å"grow out† of delinquent behavior? Is Rick’s pattern of offending much the same as those of other delinquent youths? Do most delinquent youths begin with status offenses and then persist and escalate into serious, repetitive offending? (Status offenses are acts, such as truancy and running away, that are considered offenses when committed by juveniles but are not considered crimes if committed by adults.) Is there a rational component to Rick’s delinquency so that punishment by the juvenile court would deter further delinquency? Did the fact that Rick was adopted have anything to do with his involvement in delinquency? Might something about Rick’s genetic makeup and his biological family lend some insight into his behavior? What role did Rick’s use of alcohol play in his delinquency? Are there family factors that might relate to Rick’s involvement in delinquency? Were there aspects of Rick’s school experiences that might be related to his delinquency? What role did Rick’s friend play in his delinquent behavior? Did the youth court’s formal adjudication of Rick as a â€Å"delinquent youth† two years earlier label him and make him more likely to continue in delinquent behavior? Should the juvenile court retain jurisdiction for serious, repeat offenders like Rick? What should the juvenile court try to do with Rick: punish, deter, or rehabilitate him? Should the juvenile court hold Rick less responsible for his acts than an adult because he has not fully matured? The Study of Juvenile Delinquency | Perhaps this list of questions seems a little overwhelming to you now. We don’t present them here with the expectation that you will be able to answer them. Instead, we present them to prompt you to think about what causes juvenile delinquency and to give you an idea of the types of questions that drive the scientific study of delinquent behavior. Throughout this book, we address these types of questions as we define delinquency; consider the nature of delinquent offenses, offenders, and offending; and present a variety of theories to explain delinquent behavior. We return to Rick’s story and these questions in Chapter 14. After reading the next 12 chapters, you should have the tools necessary to think about and respond to these questions in a whole new light. ââ€"   Understanding Juvenile Delinquency The questions that shape the scientific study of juvenile delinquency constitute attempts to define, describe, explain, and respond to delinquent behavior. Rather than being asked with regard to a particular case like Rick’s, the questions that inspire the study of juvenile delinquency are cast more broadly in order to understand delinquent behavior as it occurs among adolescents. An understanding of delinquent behavior builds upon explanations that have been offered in theories and findings that have been revealed in research. The primary purpose of this book is to cultivate an understanding of juvenile delinquency by integrating theory and research. Throughout the book, we focus on the central roles that theory and research play in the study of delinquency, because these two components form the core of any scientific inquiry. Before we go any further, we must define what we mean by â€Å"juvenile delinquency.† This definition is far more complicated than you might think. In the next chapter, we offer a thorough discussion of the social construction and transformation of the concept of juvenile delinquency. Here we offer a brief working definition of juvenile delinquency as actions that violate the law, committed by a person who is under the legal age of majority. Our exploration of juvenile delinquency reflects the four basic tasks of the scientific study of delinquency—to define, describe, explain, and respond to delinquent behavior. The first two major sections of this book are devoted to defining and describing juvenile delinquency, the third section to explaining delinquent behavior, and the final section to contemporary ways of responding to juvenile delinquency. Responses to delinquent behavior, however, should be based on a thorough understanding of delinquency. Thus, an understanding of juvenile delinquency must come first. The Study of Juvenile Delinquency The first section of this book describes the historical transformation of the concept of juvenile delinquency and the methods and data sources researchers use to study involvement in delinquent behavior. We begin by developing a working understanding of what we commonly call â€Å"juvenile delinquency† (Chapter 2). This includes not only the social, political, and economic changes that led to the social construction of juvenile delinquency as a legal term, but also the contemporary transformations that have dramatically altered how we as a society juvenile delinquency Actions that violate the law, committed by a person who is under the legal age of majority. 5 6 | JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH view, define, and respond to juvenile delinquency. We then explore how researchers â€Å"measure† delinquency (Chapter 3). We describe the research process, various methods of gathering data and doing research on juvenile delinquency, and sources of data on crime and delinquency. The Nature of Delinquency The second section of this book presents a trilogy of chapters in which we describe the nature of delinquent offenses, offenders, and patterns of offending. Any attempt to explain juvenile delinquency must first be able to accurately describe the problem in terms of these three dimensions. Chapters 4 through 6 report research findings that describe the extent of delinquent offenses (Chapter 4), the social characteristics of delinquent offenders (Chapter 5), and the developmental patterns of delinquent offending (Chapter 6). Explaining Delinquent Behavior The third section of this book examines a variety of explanations of delinquency that criminologists have proposed in theories and examined in research related to those theories. These chapters are organized in terms of the major themes that run through seven different groups of theories. One group of theories, for example, emphasizes the importance of peer group influences on delinquency. These theories, called social learning theories, address how delinquent behavior is learned in the context of peer group relations (Chapter 11). Six other themes are also considered: the question of whether delinquency is chosen or determined (Chapter 7); the role of individual factors, including biological characteristics and personality, in explaining delinquent behavior (Chapter 8); situational and routine dimensions of delinquency (Chapter 9); the importance of social relationships, especially family relations and school experiences, in controlling delinquency (Chapter 10); the structure of society, and how societal characteristics motivate individual behavior (Chapter 12); and social and societal responses to delinquency (Chapter 13). We also apply these various explanations to Rick’s case, which opened this chapter, and examine integrated theoretical approaches (Chapter 14). Throughout the book, as we present theoretical explanations for delinquency, we weave together theories and the most relevant research that criminologists have conducted to test those theories. Responding to Juvenile Delinquency The final section of this book comprises a single chapter that describes contemporary juvenile justice (Chapter 15). We have deliberately chosen to keep the discussion of juvenile justice in one chapter, in order to provide an undivided view of its structure and process. The formal system of juvenile justice includes police, courts, and corrections. Yet a substantial amount of juvenile delinquency is dealt with informally, sometimes by agencies outside the â€Å"system.† Juvenile justice encompasses efforts at prevention, together with informal and formal action taken by the traditional juvenile justice system. Formal procedures, such as taking youths into custody and adjudicating them as delinquent youths, are central to the task of responding to juvenile delinquency. But informal procedures designed to prevent delinquency and divert youths from the juvenile justice system are far more common. The Study of Juvenile Delinquency | ââ€"   Developing and Evaluating Theories of Delinquency In 1967, two noted sociologists, Travis Hirschi and Hanan Selvin, observed that theories of delinquency suggest a â€Å"sequence of steps through which a person moves from law abiding behavior to . . . delinquency.†1 Criminological theories try to identify and describe the key causal factors that make up this â€Å"sequence of steps† leading to delinquent behavior. In doing so, theories of delinquency emphasize certain factors as being causally important and then describe how these factors are interrelated in producing delinquent behavior. Stated simply: â€Å"a theory is an explanation.†2 Components of Theories Like other scientific theories, theories of delinquency are composed of two basic parts: concepts and propositions. Concepts isolate and categorize features of the world that are thought to be causally important.3 Different theories of juvenile delinquency incorporate and emphasize different concepts. For example, the theories of delinquency we consider in later chapters include concepts such as personality traits, intelligence, routine activities of adolescents, relationship ties (called attachments), associations with delinquent friends, and social disorganization of neighborhoods. Concepts require definition.4 Definitions serve two functions: they clarify concepts and provide common understanding, and they describe how concepts will be measured for the purpose of research. Propositions tell how concepts are related. Scientific theories use propositions to make statements about the relationships between concepts.5 Some propositions imply a positive linear relationship in which the â€Å"concepts increase or decrease together in a relatively straight-line fashion.†6 For example, some theories offer the proposition that the number of delinquent friends is positively related to delinquent behavior: as the number of delinquent friends increases, so does the likelihood of delinquency. In a negative linear relationship, the concepts vary in opposite directions. For instance, one theory offers the proposition that level of attachment and delinquency are negatively related: as attachment increases, delinquent behavior decreases. Relationships between concepts may  also be curvilinear. Here, too, the concepts vary together, either positively or negatively, but after reaching a certain level, the relationship moves in the opposite direction. For example, researchers have found that parental discipline is related to delinquency in a curvilinear fashion.7 Delinquent behavior is most frequent when parental discipline is either lacking or excessive, but it is least common when levels of discipline are moderate. If you think of parental discipline as a continuum, delinquency is highest on the two ends of the discipline continuum, when discipline is lax or excessive, and lowest in the middle, when discipline is moderate. Different theories may offer competing propositions. One theory may propose that two concepts are related in a particular way, whereas another theory may claim that they are unrelated. For example, one of the major issues in delinquency theory is the role of the family in explaining delinquent behavior. One major theory contends that the family is essentially unrelated to delinquent behavior and that delinquent peers are an important factor in explaining delinquency. Another theory An explanation that makes a systematic and logical argument regarding what is important and why. concepts Isolated features of the world that are thought to be causally important. propositions Theoretical statements that tell how concepts are related. 7 8 | theory of delinquency A set of logically related propositions that explain why and how selected concepts are related to delinquent behavior. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH influential theory proposes the opposite relationship, arguing that family relations are strongly related to delinquency, whereas peer relations are less important in explaining delinquency.8 To summarize, a theory of delinquency is a set of logically related propositions that explain why and how selected concepts are related to delinquent behavior.9 A theory offers a logically developed argument that certain concepts are important in causing delinquent behavior. The purpose of theory, then, is to explain juvenile delinquency. Levels of Explanation level of explanation The realm of explanation— individual, microsocial, or macrosocial—that corresponds to the types of concepts incorporated into theories. Theories of delinquency operate at three different levels of explanation: individual, microsocial, and macrosocial.10 On the individual level, theories focus on traits and characteristics of individuals, either innate or learned, that make some people more likely than others to engage in delinquent behavior. The microsocial level of explanation considers the  social processes by which individuals become the â€Å"kinds of people† who commit delinquent acts.11 Criminologists have emphasized family relations and delinquent peer group influences at this level. Some microsocial theories also point to the importance of the structural context of social interaction.12 Race, gender, and social class, for example, influence social interaction not only within families and peer groups, but in virtually all social contexts. As a result, the distinction between social process and social structure is not always clear, nor is it always useful as a means of categorizing theoretical explanations.13 At the macrosocial level, societal characteristics such as social class and social cohesiveness are used to explain group variation in rates of delinquency.14 For example, poverty, together with the absence of community social control, is central to several explanations of why gang delinquency is more common in lower-class areas.15 The level of explanation—individual, microsocial, or macrosocial—corresponds to the types of concepts incorporated into a theory.16 Individual-level explanations tend to incorporate biological and psychological concepts. Microsocial explanations most often use social psychological concepts, but may incorporate structural concepts that influence social interaction. Macrosocial explanations draw extensively on sociological concepts. Theories can be combined to form â€Å"integrated theories† (see Chapter 14), which sometimes merge different levels of explanation into a single theoretical framework. Assessing Theory We have proposed that concepts and propositions are the bare essentials of theory.17 These components, however, do not automatically produce a valid explanation of delinquency. We can begin to assess the validity of theory—the degree to which it accurately and adequately explains delinquent behavior—by paying attention to several key dimensions of theory.18 We highlight these dimensions (e.g., clarity, consistency, testability, applicability) in the following list of questions. We invite you to ask yourself these questions as you evaluate the theories of delinquency we present in later chapters and consider how well they explain delinquent behavior. 1. Conceptual clarity: How clearly are the theoretical concepts identified and defined?19 How well do the concepts and propositions fit together—how compatible, complementary, and congruent are they?20 The Study of Juvenile Delinquency 2. Logical consistency: Does the theoretical argument develop logically and consistently? Do the concepts and propositions depict a causal process leading to delinquency? 3. Parsimony: How concise is the theory in terms of its concepts and propositions? This question concerns economy of explanation. Generally, simpler is better. So if two theories explain delinquency equally well, we should favor the theory that offers the more concise explanation with the smaller number of concepts. 4. Scope: What is the theory attempting to explain?21 Some theories try to explain a wide variety of criminal acts and criminal offenders. Others focus on particular types of offenses or offenders. What question is the theory designed to answer? Theories of delinquency usually address one of two basic questions: (1) How and why are laws made and enforced? and (2) Why do some youths violate the law?22 Far more theories try to answer the second question than the first.23 5. Level of explanation: At what level (individual, microsocial, or macrosocial) does the theory attempt to explain delinquency? 6. Testability: To what extent can the theory be tested—verified or disproved by research evidence? It is not enough for a theory simply to â€Å"make sense† by identifying key concepts and then offering propositions that explain how these concepts are related to delinquency.24 Rather, theories must be constructed in such a way that they can be subjected to research verification.25 7. Research validity: To what extent has the theory been supported by research evidence? 8. Applicability and usefulness: To what extent can the theory be applied practically? In other words, to what extent is the theory useful in policy and practice? These questions reflect key concerns in assessing theory. In the end, theory is the foundation for the accumulation of knowledge, and it is indispensable for an understanding of juvenile delinquency. However, theory must be tested through research. Together, theory and research constitute the two basic components of a scientific approach to juvenile delinquency. ââ€"   Purposes of Delinquency Research Delinquency research serves two vital purposes: to generate or develop theory, and to test theory.26 In Chapter 3, we discuss research methods and sources of data used in the study of delinquency. Here we briefly describe the two purposes of research as it relates to theory. Generating Theory Research is sometimes used to gain sufficient information about juvenile delinquency to theorize about it.27 Despite the old adage, â€Å"the data speak for themselves,† research findings about delinquency require interpretation, and it is this interpretation that yields theory. As a result, the development of theoretical | 9 10 | inductive theorizing The development of theory from research observations. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH explanations of delinquency requires a long, hard look at the â€Å"facts† of delinquency (repeated and consistent findings), in order to isolate and identify key concepts and then explain how these concepts are related to delinquent behavior. Along this line, Donald Shoemaker defines theory as â€Å"an attempt to make sense out of observations.†28 The difficult task of making theoretical sense of research observations is sometimes referred to as â€Å"grounded theory† or inductive theorizing. 29 In the process of inductive theorizing, research involves collecting data and making empirical observations, which are then used to develop theory. For example, Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck, whose work we discuss more fully in later chapters, spent their entire careers attempting to uncover the most important empirical findings about juvenile delinquency. They referred to their task as Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency—the title of their most important book.30 The Gluecks’ work was heavily criticized for being atheoretical, or without theory.31 Their research, however, was clearly directed at providing empirical observations that would allow for the development of a theoretical explanation of delinquency, even though they never developed such a theory.32 In recent years, their data and findings have become the basis for an important new theory called â€Å"life-course theory,† which we describe in Chapter 10. Testing Theory deductive theorizing The evaluation of theoretical statements through research. Research also provides the means to evaluate theory and to choose among alternative theories.33 In contrast to inductive theorizing, deductive theorizing begins with theoretical statements and then attempts to test the validity of theoretical predictions.34 As we already discussed, theories advance explanations of delinquency in which propositions identify certain concepts and describe how they are related to delinquent behavior. These theoretically predicted relationships can be tested through research and either verified or disproved. For example, one simple proposition of differential association theory (presented in Chapter 11) is that attitudes  favoring delinquency are learned in the context of â€Å"intimate personal groups.†35 The predicted relationship portrayed here is that youths develop attitudes from peer group relations, and delinquent behavior is then an expression of these attitudes: peer group relations âž  delinquent attitudes âž  delinquent behavior If research findings support the theoretical propositions tested, then the theory is verified or confirmed. If research findings are not consistent with the predicted relationships, then the theory is disproved. Different theories often offer different predictions. To continue with the previous example, differential association theory and social bond theory (presented in Chapter 10) provide competing predictions about the relationships between peers, attitudes, and delinquent behavior. In contrast to differential association theory, social bond theory contends that attitudes are largely a product of family relationships.36 Delinquent attitudes result in delinquent behavior. Associations with delinquent peers then follow from delinquent behavior as youths seek out friendships with others like themselves. The relationships predicted by social bond theory are as follows: The Study of Juvenile Delinquency delinquent attitudes âž  delinquent behavior âž  delinquent peer group As this brief example illustrates, theories have empirical implications, and one purpose of research is to enable scholars to choose among competing theories.37 The preceding discussion of the two purposes of delinquency research implies that the processes of inductive theorizing and deductive theorizing are completely distinct. The former is used to generate or develop theory; the latter is used to test theory. We must acknowledge, however, the complexity of the relationship between theory and research, and note that the distinction between the two purposes of research is not necessarily clear-cut. Even within the process of deductive theorizing, for example, an element of inductive theorizing exists. In deductive theorizing, researchers begin with theoretical predictions and then use empirical observations to test those propositions. The research results may lead to modification or refinement of the theory being tested. The latter part of this process, in which observations are interpreted and may result in a revised statement of theory, is consistent with the process of inductive theorizing. Although the relationship between theory and research is complex, it is clear that the development of theory and the performance of research go hand in hand.38 ââ€"   Summary and Conclusions The scientific study of juvenile delinquency attempts to describe and explain delinquent behavior through theory and research. Theory seeks to provide a systematic and logical argument that specifies what is important in causing delinquency and why. Like other scientific theories, theories of delinquency  are composed of concepts and propositions. It is necessary to assess the validity of theories, including those we apply to explain delinquency. We provided a series of questions that you can use to evaluate the theories of delinquency we present in later chapters. The second basic component of the scientific method is research. In relation to theory, research serves two purposes: to generate theory and to test theory. Research is sometimes used to gain sufficient information about juvenile delinquency so that it becomes possible to theorize about it. The development of theory from research observations is called inductive theorizing.39 Research is also used to evaluate or test theory in a process called deductive theorizing. As we noted earlier, the primary purpose of this book is to cultivate an understanding of juvenile delinquency by integrating theory and research. This chapter has offered an overview of the key elements of a scientific approach to juvenile delinquency, focusing especially on theory. We describe research methods in Chapter 3. With this basic understanding of theory and its relationship to research, we can begin our study of juvenile delinquency on solid ground. The first two sections of this book present criminologists’ efforts to define and describe juvenile delinquency, the third major section presents explanations of juvenile delinquency that have been offered in theory and tested in research, and the fourth section considers contemporary responses to delinquency. Throughout the book, we present theoretical explanations of delinquency together with the most relevant research that has tested those theories. | 11 12 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Define theory without using the words â€Å"concept† or â€Å"proposition.† 2. Why does a scientific approach to juvenile delinquency depend on theory? 3. Develop your own example of inductive theorizing. Develop your own example of deductive theorizing. 4. As you read Rick’s story at the beginning of this chapter, what factors seemed most significant to you in considering why Rick engaged in delinquency? Why? SUGGESTED READING Gibbons, Don C. Talking About Crime and Criminals: Problems and Issues in Theory Development in Criminology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. GLOSSARY concepts: Isolated features of the world that are thought to be causally important. deductive theorizing: The evaluation of theoretical statements through research. inductive theorizing: The development of theory from research observations. juvenile delinquency: Actions that violate the law, committed by a person who is under the legal age of majority. level of explanation: The realm of explanation—individual, microsocial, or macrosocial—that corresponds to the types of concepts incorporated into theories. propositions: Theoretical statements that tell how concepts are related. theory: An explanation that makes a systematic and logical argument regarding what is important and why. theory of delinquency: A set of logically related propositions that explain why and how selected concepts are related to delinquent behavior. REFERENCES Akers, Ronald L. Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application. 4th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury, 2004. Babbie, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1998. Bohm, Robert M. A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2001. Cloward, Richard A., and Lloyd E. Ohlin. Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. New York: Free Press, 1960. Cohen, Albert K. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York: Free Press, 1955. ———. Deviance and Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1966. Cohen, Bernard P. Developing Sociological Knowledge: Theory and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980. 13 Curran, Daniel J., and Claire M. Renzetti. Theories of Crime. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. Gibbons, Don C. The Criminological Enterprise: Theories and Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979. ———. Talking About Crime and Criminals: Problems and Issues in Theory Development in Criminology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. Gibbons, Don C., and Marvin D. Krohn. Delinquent Behavior. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991. Gibbs, Jack P. â€Å"The State of Criminological Theory.† Criminology 25 (1987):821–840. Glaser, Barney, and Anselm L. Straus. The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1967. Glueck, Sheldon, and Eleanor Glueck. Unraveling Delinquency. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1950. Hepburn, John R. â€Å"Testing Alternative Models of Delinquency Causation.† Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 67 (1976):450–460. Hirschi, Travis. Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1969. Hirschi, Travis, and Hanan C. Selvin. Delinquency Research: An Appraisal of Analytic Methods. New York: Free Press, 1967. Jensen, Gary F â€Å"Parents, Peers, and Delinquent Action: A Test of the Differential Association Per. spective.† American Sociological Review 78 (1972):562–575. Laub, John H., and Robert J. Sampson. â€Å"The Sutherland–Glueck Debate: On the Sociology of Criminological Knowledge.† American Journal of Sociology 96 (1991):1402–1440. Sampson, Robert J., and John H. Laub. Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. Shaw, Clifford R., and Henry D. McKay. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas: A Study of Rates of Delinquency in Relation to Differential Characteristics of Local Communities in American Cities. Rev. ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. Shoemaker, Donald J. Theories of Delinquency: An Examination of Explanations of Delinquent Behavior. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Short, James F Jr. â€Å"The Level of Explanation Problem Revisited.† Criminology 36 (1998):3–36. ., Stark, Rodney. Sociology. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1998. Stinchcombe, Arthur L. Constructing Social Theories. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1968. Sutherland, Edwin H., Donald R. Cressey, and David F Luckenbill. Principles of Criminology. 11th ed. . Dix Hills, NY: General Hall, 1992. Turner, Jonathan. The Structure of Sociological Theory. Rev. ed. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1978. Vold, George B., Thomas J. Bernard, and Jeffrey B. Snipes. Theoretical Criminology. 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ENDNOTES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Hirschi and Selvin, Delinquency Research, 66. Bohm, Primer, 1. Turner, Structure of Sociological Theory, 2–3. Bohm, Primer, 2. See Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 140–148, for a full discussion of concept definition. Vold, Bernard, and Snipes, Theoretical Criminology, 4. Bohm, Primer, 2. Glueck and Glueck, Unraveling Delinquency. Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology, 211–214; and Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency, 140–146. Stark, Sociology, 2; and Curran and Renzetti, Theories of Crime, 2. Short, â€Å"Level of Explanation.† Albert K. Cohen, Deviance and Control, 43; and Gibbons, Criminological Enterprise, 9. Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology; and Short, â€Å"Level of Explanation.† Akers, Criminological Theories, 4–5. 14 14. Albert K. Cohen, Deviance and Control, 43; Gibbons, Criminological Enterprise, 9; and Akers, Criminological Theories, 4. 15. Shaw and McKay, Juvenile Delinquency; Albert K. Cohen, Delinquent Boys; and Cloward and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity. 16. Short points out, in â€Å"The Level of Explanation Problem Revisited† (3), that the level of explanation corresponds to the unit of observation and the unit of analysis. 17. Our discussion of delinquency theory comprising concepts and propositions makes theory seem simple and straightforward. But we must admit that, among social scientists, â€Å"there is still no agreed-upon view of what theory is† (Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 170). See also Gibbs, â€Å"State of Criminological Theory.† 18. Drawn from Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 191–192. 19. Shoemaker, Theories of Delinquency, 9. 20. Akers, Criminological Theories, 6–7; and Shoemaker, Theories of Delinquency, 9. 21. Akers, Criminological Theories, 6–7; and Curran and Renzetti, Theories of Crime, 3. 22. Akers, Criminological Theories, 2–6. Renowned criminologist Edwin Sutherland defined criminology as the study of law making, law breaking, and law enforcement (Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology, 3). 23. Akers, Criminological Theories, 4. Gibbons (Talking About Crime, 9–11, 73–76) describes two key criminological questions: â€Å"Why do they do it?† and â€Å"the rates question.† The first question addresses â€Å"the origins and development of criminal acts and careers,† and the second question addresses â€Å"organizations, social systems, social structures, and cultures that produce different rates of behaviors of interest† (9). See also Gibbons, Criminological Enterprise, 9; Gibbons and Krohn, Delinquent Behavior, 85–86; and Short, â€Å"Level of Explanation,† 7. 24. Akers, Criminological Theories, 7. 25. Stinchcombe, Constructing Social Theories. 26. Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, vii, 10; and Stark, Sociology, 3. 27. Stark, Sociology, 3. 28. Shoemaker, Theories of Delinquency, 7. 29. Glaser and Straus, Discovery of Grounded Theory; and Babbie, Practice of Social Research, 4, 60–64. 30. Glueck and Glueck, Unraveling Delinquency, 1950. 31. Gibbons and Krohn, Delinquent Behavior, 83–84. 32. Laub and Sampson, â€Å"Sutherland–Glueck Debate;† and Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making. 33. Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 10. 34. Babbie, Practice of Social Research, 4. 35. Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology, 88–89. 36. Jensen, â€Å"Parents;† Hepburn, â€Å"Testing Alternative Models;† and Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency. 37. Stark, Sociology, 2; and Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 10. 38. Gibbons, Talking About Crime, 7. 39. Stark, Sociology, 3.